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When Has Islam Become Present in Turkey Again Education Clip Art

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Muslim conquests that led to the creation of the caliphates after Muhammad's death

The spread of Islam spans most i,400 years. Muslim conquests post-obit Muhammad'southward death led to the creation of the caliphates, occupying a vast geographical area; conversion to Islam was boosted by Arab Muslim forces acquisition vast territories and building imperial structures over time. Well-nigh of the meaning expansion occurred during the reign of the Rashidun from 632 to 661 CE, which was the reign of the first four successors of Muhammad.[1] These early caliphates, coupled with Muslim economics and trading, the Islamic Gilded Age, and the age of the Islamic gunpowder empires, resulted in Islam'due south spread outwards from Mecca towards the Indian, Atlantic, and Pacific Oceans and the creation of the Muslim world. Trade played an important role in the spread of Islam in several parts of the earth, especially Indian traders in Southeast Asia.[2] [three]

Muslim dynasties were before long established and subsequent empires such as those of the Umayyads, Abbasids, Mamluks, Seljukids, and the Ayyubids were amongst some of the largest and nearly powerful in the world. The Ajuran and Adal Sultanates, and the wealthy Mali Empire, in North Africa, the Delhi, Deccan, and Bengal Sultanates, and Mughal and Durrani Empires, and Kingdom of Mysore and Nizam of Hyderabad in the Indian subcontinent, the Ghaznavids, Ghurids, Samanids in Persia, Timurids, and the Ottoman Empire in Anatolia significantly changed the course of history. The people of the Islamic world created numerous sophisticated centers of culture and scientific discipline with far-reaching mercantile networks, travelers, scientists, hunters, mathematicians, physicians, and philosophers, all contributing to the Islamic Golden Age. The Timurid Renaissance and the Islamic expansion in Southward and East Asia fostered cosmopolitan and eclectic Muslim cultures in the Indian subcontinent, Malaysia, Republic of indonesia and Cathay.[four]

As of 2016, in that location were i.7 billion Muslims,[v] [half-dozen] [7] with ane out of four people in the world being Muslim,[8] making Islam the second-largest organized religion.[nine] Out of children born from 2010 to 2015, 31% were Muslim[ten] and currently Islam is the world's fastest-growing major religion.[eleven] [12] [13]

History [edit]

Muslim Arab expansion in the starting time centuries after Prophet Muhammad'due south death presently established dynasties in North Africa, West Africa, to the Middle E, and s to Somalia by the Companions of the Prophet, most notably the Rashidun Caliphate and armed forces advents of Khalid Bin Walid, Amr ibn al-As and Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas.

Rashidun Caliphs and Umayyads (610–750 C.E) [edit]

Inside the century of the establishment of Islam upon the Arabian Peninsula and the subsequent rapid expansion during the early Muslim conquests, 1 of the most significant empires in world history was formed.[xiv] For the subjects of the empire, formerly of the Byzantine and Sasanian Empires, not much changed in practice. The objective of the conquests was mostly of a applied nature, as fertile land and h2o were scarce in the Arabian Peninsula. A real Islamization therefore only came almost in the subsequent centuries.[fifteen]

Ira Thou. Lapidus distinguishes between two divide strands of converts of the time: animists and polytheists of tribal societies of the Arabian Peninsula and the Fertile Crescent and the native Christians and Jews who existed before Muslims arrived.[16]

The empire spread from the Atlantic Ocean to the Aral Bounding main, from the Atlas Mountains to the Hindu Kush, bounded mostly past "a combination of natural barriers and well-organized states".[17]

For the polytheistic and infidel societies, apart from the religious and spiritual reasons each individual may have had, conversion to Islam "represented the response of a tribal, pastoral population to the need for a larger framework for political and economic integration, a more stable land, and a more imaginative and encompassing moral vision to cope with the bug of a tumultuous club."[16] In contrast, for tribal, nomadic, monotheistic societies, "Islam was substituted for a Byzantine or Sassanian political identity and for a Christian, Jewish or Zoroastrian religious amalgamation."[xvi] Conversion initially was neither required nor necessarily wished for: "(The Arab conquerors) did not crave the conversion as much every bit the subordination of non-Muslim peoples. At the outset, they were hostile to conversions because new Muslims diluted the economical and status advantages of the Arabs."[16]

Only in subsequent centuries, with the evolution of the religious doctrine of Islam and with that the understanding of the Muslim ummah, did mass conversion take place. The new understanding by the religious and political leadership in many cases led to a weakening or breakdown of the social and religious structures of parallel religious communities such equally Christians and Jews.[16]

The caliphs of the Arab dynasty established the first schools inside the empire which taught Arabic language and Islamic studies. They furthermore began the aggressive projection of building mosques across the empire, many of which remain today as the most magnificent mosques in the Islamic world, such equally the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus. At the end of the Umayyad period, less than 10% of the people in Iran, Republic of iraq, Syrian arab republic, Egypt, Tunisia and Espana were Muslim. Only on the Arabian Peninsula was the proportion of Muslims amid the population college than this.[eighteen]

Abbasids (750–1258) [edit]

The Abbasids are known to have founded some of the world's earliest educational institutions, such as the House of Wisdom.

The Abbasid era replaced the expanding empire and "tribal politics" of "the tight-knit Arabian elite[17] with cosmopolitan culture and disciplines of Islamic scientific discipline,[17] philosophy, theology, law and mysticism became more widespread and the gradual conversions of the populations within the empire occurred. Pregnant conversions likewise occurred across the extents of the empire such as that of the Turkic tribes in Primal Asia and peoples living in regions south of the Sahara in Africa through contact with Muslim traders active in the surface area and Sufi orders. In Africa information technology spread along three routes, across the Sahara via trading towns such as Timbuktu, up the Nile Valley through the Sudan up to Republic of uganda and across the Reddish Ocean and downward East Africa through settlements such every bit Mombasa and Zanzibar. These initial conversions were of a flexible nature.

The reasons why, past the end of the 10th century, a large part of the population had converted to Islam are diverse. According to British-Lebanese historian Albert Hourani, one of the reasons may exist that

"Islam had become more than conspicuously defined, and the line between Muslims and non-Muslims more sharply drawn. Muslims now lived inside an elaborated system of ritual, doctrine and law clearly different from those of not-Muslims. (...) The condition of Christians, Jews and Zoroastrians was more precisely defined, and in some ways it was inferior. They were regarded as the 'People of the Book', those who possessed a revealed scripture, or 'People of the Covenant', with whom compacts of protection had been fabricated. In full general, they were not forced to convert, but they suffered from restrictions. They paid a special revenue enhancement; they were not supposed to wearable certain colors; they could not ally Muslim women;."[xviii]

Most of these laws were elaborations of bones laws concerning non-Muslims (dhimmis) in the Quran. The Quran does not give much detail about the correct conduct with non-Muslims, in principle recognizing the religion of "People of the book" (Jews, Christians, and sometimes others as well) and securing a split tax from them in lieu of the zakat imposed upon Muslim subjects.

Ira Lapidus points towards "interwoven terms of political and economic benefits and of a sophisticated culture and religion" equally highly-seasoned to the masses.[xix] He writes that :

"The question of why people convert to Islam has always generated the intense feeling. Earlier generations of European scholars believed that conversions to Islam were fabricated at the betoken of the sword, and that conquered peoples were given the option of conversion or death. It is now apparent that conversion past force, while not unknown in Muslim countries, was, in fact, rare. Muslim conquerors normally wished to dominate rather than convert, and most conversions to Islam were voluntary. (...) In most cases, worldly and spiritual motives for conversion blended together. Moreover, conversion to Islam did not necessarily imply a consummate turning from an old to a totally new life. While it entailed the credence of new religious beliefs and membership in a new religious community, most converts retained a deep attachment to the cultures and communities from which they came."[19]

The result of this, he points out, tin can be seen in the diversity of Muslim societies today, with varying manifestations and practices of Islam.

Conversion to Islam also came about as a consequence of the breakdown of historically religiously organized societies: with the weakening of many churches, for example, and the favoring of Islam and the migration of substantial Muslim Turkish populations into the areas of Anatolia and the Balkans, the "social and cultural relevance of Islam" were enhanced and a large number of peoples were converted. This worked amend in some areas (Anatolia) and less in others (e.g. the Balkans, where "the spread of Islam was limited by the vitality of the Christian churches.")[xvi]

Along with the religion of Islam, the Standard arabic language, number system and Arab customs spread throughout the empire. A sense of unity grew among many though non all provinces, gradually forming the consciousness of a broadly Arab-Islamic population: something which was recognizably an Islamic world had emerged by the end of the 10th century.[20] Throughout this flow, as well every bit in the following centuries, divisions occurred between Persians and Arabs, and Sunnis and Shias, and unrest in provinces empowered local rulers at times.[18]

Conversion within the empire: Umayyad vs. Abbasid period [edit]

In that location are a number of historians who run into the rule of the Umayyads as responsible for setting up the "dhimmah" to increase taxes from the dhimmis to do good the Arab Muslim customs financially and to discourage conversion.[21] Islam was initially associated with the ethnic identity of the Arabs and required formal association with an Arab tribe and the adoption of the client status of mawali.[21] Governors lodged complaints with the caliph when he enacted laws that made conversion easier, depriving the provinces of revenues from the tax on non-Muslims.

During the following Abbasid period an enfranchisement was experienced by the mawali and a shift was made in the political conception from that of a primarily Arab empire to one of a Muslim empire[22] and c. 930 a law was enacted that required all bureaucrats of the empire to exist Muslims.[21] Both periods were also marked by meaning migrations of Arab tribes outwards from the Arabian Peninsula into the new territories.[22]

Conversion within the empire: "Conversion bend" [edit]

Richard Bulliet'south "conversion curve" shows a relatively depression rate of conversion of non-Arab subjects during the Arab centric Umayyad menstruation of ten%, in contrast with estimates for the more politically multicultural Abbasid menstruation which saw the Muslim population grow from approx. forty% in the mid-9th century to shut to 100% by the end of the 11th century.[22] This theory does not explain the continuing existence of large minorities of Christians in the Abbasid Flow. Other estimates suggest that Muslims were not a majority in Egypt until the mid-10th century and in the Fertile Crescent until 1100. Syrian arab republic may accept had a Christian majority within its modern borders until the Mongol Invasions of the 13th century.

Growth rate [edit]

In improver to conversion to Islam, the Muslim population also grew from a higher birth charge per unit than non-Muslims, a consequence of the right of Muslim men to marry four women, and possess numerous concubines and having the power to ensure their children were raised Muslims.[23]

Emergence of the Seljuks and Ottomans (950–1450) [edit]

The expansion of Islam continued in the wake of Turkic conquests of Asia Minor, the Balkans, and the Indian subcontinent.[14] The before menstruation also saw the acceleration in the rate of conversions in the Muslim heartland while in the wake of the conquests the newly conquered regions retained significant non-Muslim populations in dissimilarity to the regions where the boundaries of the Muslim globe contracted, such as the Emirate of Sicily (Italy) and Al Andalus (Spain and Portugal), where Muslim populations were expelled or forced to Christianize in curt order.[14] The latter catamenia of this phase was marked by the Mongol invasion (particularly the siege of Baghdad in 1258) and afterwards an initial flow of persecution, the conversion of these conquerors to Islam.

Ottoman Empire (1299–1924) [edit]

The Ottoman Empire defended its frontiers initially against threats from several sides: the Safavids on the Eastern side, the Byzantine Empire in the Northward which vanished with the Conquest of Constantinople in 1453, and the great Catholic powers from the Mediterranean Sea: Spain, the Holy Roman Empire, and Venice with its eastern Mediterranean colonies.

Later, the Ottoman Empire attack to conquer territories from these rivals: Cyprus and other Greek islands (except Crete) were lost by Venice to the Ottomans, and the latter conquered territory up to the Danube bowl as far as Republic of hungary. Crete was conquered during the 17th century, but the Ottomans lost Hungary to the Holy Roman Empire, and other parts of Eastern Europe, ending with the Treaty of Carlowitz in 1699.[24]

The Ottoman sultanate was abolished on ane November 1922 and the caliphate was abolished on iii March 1924.[25]

Modern [edit]

Islam has continued to spread through commerce and migrations; peculiarly in Southeast Asia, America and Europe.[fourteen]

By region [edit]

Arabia [edit]

At Mecca, Muhammad is said to accept received repeated embassies from Christian tribes.

Greater Syrian arab republic [edit]

Similar their Byzantine and late Sasanian predecessors, the Marwanid caliphs nominally ruled the various religious communities only allowed the communities' own appointed or elected officials to administer most internal diplomacy. Still the Marwanids also depended heavily on the assistance of non-Arab administrative personnel and on administrative practices (e.g., a fix of regime bureaus). Equally the conquests slowed and the isolation of the fighters (muqatilah) became less necessary, it became more and more difficult to keep Arabs garrisoned. Every bit the tribal links that had so dominated Umayyad politics began to pause down, the meaningfulness of tying non-Arab converts to Arab tribes as clients was diluted; moreover, the number of non-Muslims who wished to join the ummah was already condign too large for this process to piece of work finer.

Jerusalem and Palestine [edit]

Temple Mount.JPG

The Siege of Jerusalem (636–637) past the forces of the Rashid Caliph Umar against the Byzantines began in Nov 636. For four months, the siege continued. Ultimately, the Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem, Sophronius, an ethnic Arab,[26] agreed to surrender Jerusalem to Umar in person. The caliph, and so in Medina, agreed to these terms and travelled to Jerusalem to sign the capitulation in the spring of 637.

Sophronius also negotiated a pact with Umar known equally Umar's Assurance, allowing for the religious freedom for Christians in commutation for jizya, a revenue enhancement to be paid by conquered non-Muslims, called dhimmis. Under Muslim rule, the Jewish and Christian population of Jerusalem in this catamenia enjoyed the usual tolerance given to not-Muslim theists.[27] [28]

Having accepted the give up, Omar then entered Jerusalem with Sophronius "and courteously discoursed with the patriarch concerning its religious antiquities".[29] When the hour for his prayer came, Omar was in the Anastasis church, but refused to pray there, lest in the future Muslims should use that as an alibi to pause the treaty and confiscate the church. The Mosque of Umar, opposite the doors of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, with the alpine minaret, is known as the place to which he retired for his prayer.

Bishop Arculf, whose business relationship of his pilgrimage to the Holy State in the seventh century, De locis sanctis, written down past the monk Adamnan, described reasonably pleasant living conditions of Christians in Palestine in the commencement menses of Muslim rule. The caliphs of Damascus (661-750) were tolerant princes who were on generally good terms with their Christian subjects. Many Christians, such as John of Damascus, held important offices at their court. The Abbasid caliphs at Baghdad (753-1242), as long as they ruled Syria, were likewise tolerant to Christians. Harun Abu Jaʻfar (786-809), sent the keys of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre to Charlemagne, who built a hospice for Latin pilgrims near the shrine.[27]

Rival dynasties and revolutions led to the eventual disunion of the Muslim world. In the ninth century, Palestine was conquered by the Fatimid Caliphate, whose capital letter was Cairo. Palestine once again became a battleground as the various enemies of the Fatimids counterattacked. At the same time, the Byzantines connected to attempt to regain their lost territories, including Jerusalem. Christians in Jerusalem who sided with the Byzantines were put to death for loftier treason by the ruling Shiʻi Muslims. In 969, the Patriarch of Jerusalem, John VII, was put to expiry for treasonous correspondence with the Byzantines.

As Jerusalem grew in importance to Muslims and pilgrimages increased, tolerance for other religions declined. Christians were persecuted and churches destroyed. The Sixth Fatimid caliph, al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, 996–1021, who was believed to be "God made manifest" by his most zealous Shiʻi followers, now known as the Druze, destroyed the Holy Sepulchre in 1009. This powerful provocation helped ignite the flame of fury that led to the Kickoff Cause.[27] The dynasty was later overtaken past Saladin of the Ayyubid dynasty.

Africa [edit]

North Africa [edit]

The Neat Mosque of Kairouan, founded in 670 AD (The year l according to the Islamic calendar) by the Arab general and conqueror Uqba Ibn Nafi, is the oldest mosque in western Islamic lands[30] and represents an architectural symbol of the spread of Islam in North Africa, situated in Kairouan, Tunisia.

In Egypt conversion to Islam was initially considerably slower than in other areas such every bit Mesopotamia or Khurasan, with Muslims non thought to have go the majority until around the fourteenth century.[31] In the initial invasion, the victorious Muslims granted religious freedom to the Christian customs in Alexandria, for case, and the Alexandrians speedily recalled their exiled Monophysite patriarch to rule over them, subject only to the ultimate political potency of the conquerors. In such a fashion the city persisted as a religious community under an Arab Muslim domination more than welcome and more tolerant than that of Byzantium.[32] (Other sources question how much the native population welcomed the conquering Muslims.)[33]

Byzantine rule was ended by the Arabs, who invaded Tunisia from 647 to 648[34] and Morocco in 682 in the grade of their bulldoze to aggrandize the power of Islam. In 670, the Arab general and conquistador Uqba Ibn Nafi established the city of Kairouan (in Tunisia) and its Bully Mosque besides known equally the Mosque of Uqba;[35] the Slap-up Mosque of Kairouan is the antecedent of all the mosques in the western Islamic world.[thirty] Berber troops were used extensively by the Arabs in their conquest of Spain, which began in 711.

No previous conqueror had tried to digest the Berbers, merely the Arabs quickly converted them and enlisted their help in further conquests. Without their help, for example, Andalusia could never have been incorporated into the Islamic state. At starting time simply Berbers nearer the coast were involved, but by the 11th century Muslim affiliation had begun to spread far into the Sahara.[36]

The conventional historical view is that the conquest of N Africa past the Islamic Umayyad Caliphate between CE 647–709 effectively ended Catholicism in Africa for several centuries.[37] Nevertheless, new scholarship has appeared that provides more nuance and details of the conversion of the Christian inhabitants to Islam. A Christian customs is recorded in 1114 in Qal'a in central Algeria. At that place is also evidence of religious pilgrimages after 850 CE to tombs of Catholic saints exterior of the city of Carthage, and evidence of religious contacts with Christians of Arab Kingdom of spain. In add-on, calendar reforms adopted in Europe at this time were disseminated amongst the indigenous Christians of Tunis, which would have not been possible had there been an absence of contact with Rome.

During the reign of Umar 2, the then governor of Africa, Ismail ibn Abdullah, was said to take won the Berbers to Islam by his just administration, and other early on notable missionaries include Abdallah ibn Yasin who started a movement which caused thousands of Berbers to accept Islam.[38]

Horn of Africa [edit]

The port and waterfront of Zeila.

The history of commercial and intellectual contact betwixt the inhabitants of the Somali coast and the Arabian Peninsula may help explain the Somali people'due south connexion with Muhammad. The early Muslims fled to the port city of Zeila in modernistic-mean solar day northern Somalia to seek protection from the Quraysh at the courtroom of the Aksumite Emperor in present-solar day Federal democratic republic of ethiopia. Some of the Muslims that were granted protection are said to have then settled in several parts of the Horn region to promote the faith. The victory of the Muslims over the Quraysh in the 7th century had a significant affect on local merchants and sailors, as their trading partners in Arabia had and so all adopted Islam, and the major trading routes in the Mediterranean and the Red Sea came nether the sway of the Muslim Caliphs. Through commerce, Islam spread amongst the Somali population in the coastal cities. Instability in the Arabian peninsula saw further migrations of early Muslim families to the Somali seaboard. These clans came to serve as catalysts, forwarding the faith to big parts of the Horn region.[39]

E Africa [edit]

On the east coast of Africa, where Arab mariners had for many years journeyed to trade, mainly in slaves, Arabs founded permanent colonies on the offshore islands, especially on Zanzibar, in the 9th and 10th century. From at that place Arab merchandise routes into the interior of Africa helped the boring credence of Islam.

By the 10th century, the Kilwa Sultanate was founded by Ali ibn al-Hassan Shirazi (was one of seven sons of a ruler of Shiraz, Persia, his mother an Abyssinian slave girl. Upon his father's death, Ali was driven out of his inheritance by his brothers). His successors would rule the most powerful of Sultanates in the Swahili coast, during the peak of its expansion the Kilwa Sultanate stretched from Inhambane in the south to Malindi in the north. The 13th-century Muslim traveller Ibn Battuta noted that the groovy mosque of Kilwa Kisiwani was made of coral stone (the only one of its kind in the world).

In the 20th century, Islam grew in Africa both by nascency and past conversion. The number of Muslims in Africa grew from 34.five million in 1900 to 315 million in 2000, going from roughly 20% to 40% of the total population of Africa.[40] However, in the same time period, the number of Christians also grew in Africa, from eight.7 meg in 1900 to 346 million in 2000, surpassing both the total population as well as the growth rate of Islam on the continent.[forty] [41]

Western Africa [edit]

The spread of Islam in Africa began in the 7th to ninth century, brought to Due north Africa initially under the Umayyad Dynasty. Extensive trade networks throughout Due north and Westward Africa created a medium through which Islam spread peacefully, initially through the merchant course. By sharing a common religion and a mutual transliteralization (Standard arabic), traders showed greater willingness to trust, and therefore invest, in one another.[42] Moreover, toward the 19th century, the Nigeria based Sokoto Caliphate led by Usman dan Fodio exerted considerable endeavour in spreading Islam.[38]

Persia and the Caucasus [edit]

Information technology used to be argued that Zoroastrianism rapidly collapsed in the wake of the Islamic conquest of Persia due to its intimate ties to the Sassanid state structure.[iii] Now however, more complex processes are considered, in low-cal of the more than protracted time frame attributed to the progression of the ancient Persian religion to a minority; a progression that is more than contiguous with the trends of the late antiquity period.[3] These trends are the conversions from the state religion that had already plagued the Zoroastrian authorities that continued later the Arab conquest, coupled with the migration of Arab tribes into the region during an extended period of fourth dimension that stretched well into the Abbasid reign.[iii]

A Persian miniature of Shah Abu'l Ma'ali, a scholar.

While there were cases such equally the Sassanid army division at Hamra, that converted en masse before pivotal battles such as the Boxing of al-Qādisiyyah, conversion was fastest in the urban areas where Arab forces were garrisoned slowly leading to Zoroastrianism becoming associated with rural areas.[3] Even so at the end of the Umayyad catamenia, the Muslim community was simply a minority in the region.[three]

Through the Muslim conquest of Persia, in the seventh century, Islam spread as far as the North Caucasus, which parts of it (notably Dagestan) were part of the Sasanid domains.[43] In the coming centuries, relatively big parts of the Caucasus became Muslim, while the larger swaths of it would still remain pagan (paganism branches such as the Circassian Habze) equally well equally Christian (notably Armenia and Georgia), for centuries. By the 16th century, most of the people of what are nowadays Iran and Azerbaijan had adopted the Shia branch of Islam through the conversion policies of the Safavids.[44]

Islam was readily accepted by Zoroastrians who were employed in industrial and artisan positions because, according to Zoroastrian dogma, such occupations that involved defiling burn made them impure.[38] Moreover, Muslim missionaries did not encounter difficulty in explaining Islamic tenets to Zoroastrians, as there were many similarities between the faiths. According to Thomas Walker Arnold, for the Farsi, he would come across Ahura Mazda and Ahriman under the names of Allah and Iblis.[38] At times, Muslim leaders in their endeavor to win converts encouraged attendance at Muslim prayer with promises of money and allowed the Quran to be recited in Persian instead of Standard arabic so that information technology would be intelligible to all.[38]

Robert Hoyland argues that the missionary efforts of the relatively minor number of Arab conquerors in Persian lands led to "much interaction and assimilation" between rulers and ruled, and to descendants of the conquerors adapting the Persian language and Persian festivals and culture,[45] (Persian being the language of mod-day Iran, while Standard arabic is spoken past its neighbors to the west.)

Central Asia [edit]

A number of the inhabitants of Afghanistan accepted Islam through Umayyad missionary efforts, peculiarly nether the reign of Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik and Umar ibn Abdul Aziz.[46] Later, starting from the ninth century, the Samanids, whose roots stemmed from Zoroastrian theocratic nobility, propagated Sunni Islam and Islamo-Western farsi culture deep into the centre of Central Asia. The population within its areas began firmly accepting Islam in significant numbers, notably in Taraz, now in modern-twenty-four hours Republic of kazakhstan. The commencement complete translation of the Qur'an into Persian occurred during the reign of Samanids in the ninth century. According to historians, through the zealous missionary piece of work of Samanid rulers, every bit many as 30,000 tents of Turks came to profess Islam and later on under the Ghaznavids higher than 55,000 nether the Hanafi schoolhouse of thought.[47] Afterwards the Saffarids and Samanids, the Ghaznavids re-conquered Transoxania, and invaded the Indian subcontinent in the 11th century. This was followed by the powerful Ghurids and Timurids who further expanded the culture of Islam and the Timurid Renaissance, reaching until Bengal.

Turkey [edit]

Main manufactures: Arab-Byzantine Wars, Byzantine-Seljuq wars, Byzantine-Ottoman Wars.

Indian subcontinent [edit]

Islamic influence commencement came to be felt in the Indian subcontinent during the early on seventh century with the advent of Arab traders. Arab traders used to visit the Malabar region, which was a link between them and the ports of South East Asia to trade even before Islam had been established in Arabia. Co-ordinate to Historians Elliot and Dowson in their volume The History of Bharat every bit told by its own Historians, the first ship bearing Muslim travelers was seen on the Indian coast equally early as 630 CE. The first Indian mosque is thought to have been built in 629 CE, purportedly at the behest of an unknown Chera dynasty ruler, during the lifetime of Muhammad (c.  571–632) in Kodungallur, in commune of Thrissur, Kerala by Malik Bin Deenar. In Malabar, Muslims are called Mappila.

In Bengal, Arab merchants helped plant the Port of Chittagong. Early Sufi missionaries settled in the region as early every bit the eighth century.[48] [49]

H. Thou. Rawlinson, in his book Ancient and Medieval History of India (ISBN 81-86050-79-5), claims the outset Arab Muslims settled on the Indian coast in the last function of the 7th century. This fact is corroborated, past J. Sturrock in his Due south Kanara and Madras Districts Manuals,[50] and likewise past Haridas Bhattacharya in Cultural Heritage of India Vol. IV.[51]

The Arab merchants and traders became the carriers of the new religion and they propagated it wherever they went.[52] Information technology was, however, the subsequent expansion of the Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent over the adjacent millennia that established Islam in the region.

Embedded within these lies the concept of Islam every bit a strange imposition and Hinduism being natural status of the natives who resisted, resulting in the failure of the project to Islamicize the Indian subcontinent is highly embroiled with the politics of the division and communalism in India. Considerable controversy exists as to how conversion to Islam came nigh in the Indian subcontinent.[53] These are typically represented past the following schools of idea:[53]

  1. Conversion was a combination, initially past violence, threat or other force per unit area against the person.[53]
  2. Every bit a socio-cultural process of diffusion and integration over an extended period of time into the sphere of the dominant Muslim civilisation and global polity at large.[54]
  3. A related view is that conversions occurred for non-religious reasons of pragmatism and patronage such every bit social mobility amongst the Muslim ruling elite or for relief from taxes[53] [54]
  4. Was a combination, initially made under duress followed past a genuine alter of middle[53]
  5. That the bulk of Muslims are descendants of migrants from the Iranian plateau or Arabs.[54]

Muslim missionaries played a key role in the spread of Islam in India with some missionaries even bold roles as merchants or traders. For example, in the 9th century, the Ismailis sent missionaries beyond Asia in all directions under various guises, oft equally traders, Sufis and merchants. Ismailis were instructed to speak potential converts in their own language. Some Ismaili missionaries traveled to India and employed effort to make their organized religion acceptable to the Hindus. For instance, they represented Ali every bit the tenth avatar of Vishnu and wrote hymns as well every bit a mahdi purana in their try to win converts.[38] At other times, converts were won in conjunction with the propagation efforts of rulers. According to Ibn Batuta, the Khaljis encouraged conversion to Islam by making it a custom to have the catechumen presented to the Sultan who would place a robe on the convert and laurels him with bracelets of gold.[56] During Delhi Sultanate's Ikhtiyar Uddin Bakhtiyar Khilji's control of the Bengal, Muslim missionaries in India achieved their greatest success, in terms of number of converts to Islam.[57]

The Mughal Empire, founded past Babur, a direct descendant of Timur and Genghis Khan, was able to conquer virtually the entirety of South asia. Although religious tolerance was seen during the rule of emperor Akbar's, the reign under emperor Aurangzeb witnessed the full establishment of Islamic sharia and the re-introduction of Jizya (a special tax imposed upon not-Muslims) through the compilation of the Fatawa-e-Alamgiri.[58] [59] The Mughals, already suffering a gradual decline in the early 18th century, was invaded by the Afsharid ruler Nader Shah.[60] The Mughal decline provided opportunities for the Maratha Empire, Sikh Empire, Mysore Kingdom, Nawabs of Bengal and Murshidabad and Nizams of Hyderabad to exercise control over big regions of the Indian subcontinent.[61] Eventually, afterwards numerous wars sapped its strength, the Mughal Empire was broken into smaller powers similar Shia Nawab of Bengal, the Nawab of Awadh, the Nizam of Hyderabad, and the Kingdom of Mysore, which became the major Asian economic and military ability on the Indian subcontinent.[ citation needed ]

Southeast Asia [edit]

Fifty-fifty earlier Islam was established among Indonesian communities, Muslim sailors and traders had often visited the shores of mod Republic of indonesia, almost of these early on sailors and merchants arrived from the Abbasid Caliphate's newly established ports of Basra and Debal, many of the earliest Muslim accounts of the region notation the presence of animals such every bit orang-utans, rhinos and valuable spice trade bolt such as cloves, nutmeg, galangal and coconut.[62]

Islam came to the Southeast Asia, first by the way of Muslim traders along the main trade-road between Asia and the Far East, so was further spread by Sufi orders and finally consolidated past the expansion of the territories of converted rulers and their communities.[63] The first communities arose in Northern Sumatra (Aceh) and the Malacca'south remained a stronghold of Islam from where it was propagated along the trade routes in the region.[63] At that place is no clear indication of when Islam first came to the region, the first Muslim gravestone markings date to 1082.[64]

When Marco Polo visited the area in 1292 he noted that the urban port state of Perlak was Muslim,[64] Chinese sources record the presence of a Muslim delegation to the emperor from the Kingdom of Samudra (Pasai) in 1282,[63] other accounts provide instances of Muslim communities present in the Melayu Kingdom for the same time period while others record the presence of Muslim Chinese traders from provinces such every bit Fujian.[64] The spread of Islam by and large followed the trade routes due east through the primarily Buddhist region and a half century later in the Malacca'southward we see the outset dynasty arise in the course of the Sultanate of Malacca at the far end of the Archipelago form by the conversion of 1 Parameswara Dewa Shah into a Muslim and the adoption of the name Muhammad Iskandar Shah[65] after his marriage to a daughter of the ruler of Pasai.[63] [64]

In 1380, Sufi orders carried Islam from here on to Mindanao.[ citation needed ] Java was the seat of the primary kingdom of the region, the Majapahit Empire, which was ruled by a Hindu dynasty. As commerce grew in the region with the rest of the Muslim world, Islamic influence extended to the courtroom even equally the empires political power waned and then by the time Raja Kertawijaya converted in 1475 at the easily of Sufi Sheikh Rahmat, the Sultanate was already of a Muslim character. In Vietnam, the Cham people proselytized due to contact with traders and missionaries from Kelantan.

Some other driving force for the change of the ruling class in the region was the concept amongst the increasing Muslim communities of the region when ruling dynasties to attempt to forge such ties of kinship by matrimony.[ commendation needed ] Past the time the colonial powers and their missionaries arrived in the 17th century the region upward to New Republic of guinea was overwhelmingly Muslim with animist minorities.[64]

Flags of the Sultanates in the Eastward Indies [edit]

  • Sulu

  • Deli

Inner Asia and Eastern Europe [edit]

In the mid 7th century AD, post-obit the Muslim conquest of Persia, Islam penetrated into areas that would after become office of European Russian federation.[66] A centuries later case that tin can be counted among the earliest introductions of Islam into Eastern Europe came about through the piece of work of an early 11th-century Muslim prisoner whom the Byzantines captured during one of their wars against Muslims. The Muslim prisoner was brought[ by whom? ] into the territory of the Pechenegs, where he taught and converted individuals to Islam.[67] Picayune is known most the timeline of the Islamization of Inner Asia and of the Turkic peoples who lay across the premises of the caliphate. Around the 7th and 8th centuries some states of Turkic peoples existed - similar the Turkic Khazar Khaganate (meet Khazar-Arab Wars) and the Turkic Turgesh Khaganate, which fought confronting the caliphate in social club to stop Arabization and Islamization in Asia. From the 9th century onwards, the Turks (at least individually, if not yet through adoption past their states) began to convert to Islam. Histories merely annotation the fact of pre-Mongol Central Asia'southward Islamization.[68] The Bulgars of the Volga (to whom the modernistic Volga Tatars trace their Islamic roots) adopted Islam past the 10th century.[68] under Almış. When the Franciscan friar William of Rubruck visited the encampment of Batu Khan of the Gilt Horde, who had recently (in the 1240s) completed the Mongol invasion of Volga Bulgaria, he noted "I wonder what devil carried the law of Machomet there".[68]

Another gimmicky establishment identified every bit Muslim, the Qarakhanid dynasty of the Kara-Khanid Khanate, operated much further e,[68] established by Karluks who became Islamized later converting nether Sultan Satuq Bughra Khan in the mid-10th century. However, the modernistic-day history of the Islamization of the region - or rather a witting affiliation with Islam - dates to the reign of the ulus of the son of Genghis Khan, Jochi, who founded the Golden Horde,[69] which operated from the 1240s to 1502. Kazakhs, Uzbeks and some Muslim populations of the Russian Federation trace their Islamic roots to the Golden Horde[68] and while Berke Khan became the get-go Mongol monarch to officially adopt Islam and even to oppose his kinsman Hulagu Khan[68] in the defense of Jerusalem at the Battle of Ain Jalut (1263), only much afterwards did the change became pivotal when the Mongols converted en masse [lxx] when a century subsequently Uzbeg Khan (lived 1282–1341) converted - reportedly at the hands of the Sufi Saint Baba Tukles.[71]

Some of the Mongolian tribes became Islamized. Following the brutal Mongol invasion of Central Asia under Hulagu Khan and after the Battle of Baghdad (1258), Mongol rule extended across the breadth of almost all Muslim lands in Asia. The Mongols destroyed the caliphate and persecuted Islam, replacing it with Buddhism as the official country organized religion.[70] In 1295 withal, the new Khan of the Ilkhanate, Ghazan, converted to Islam, and two decades later the Golden Horde under Uzbeg Khan (reigned 1313–1341) followed suit.[70] The Mongols had been religiously and culturally conquered; this assimilation ushered in a new age of Mongol-Islamic synthesis[70] that shaped the further spread of Islam in central Asia and the Indian subcontinent.

In the 1330s, the Mongol ruler of the Chagatai Khanate (in Cardinal Asia) converted to Islam, causing the eastern part of his realm (called Moghulistan) to rebel.[72] Even so, during the next three centuries these Buddhist, Shamanistic and Christian Turkic and Mongol nomads of the Kazakh Steppe and Xinjiang would also convert at the hands of competing Sufi orders from both east and west of the Pamirs.[72] The Naqshbandis are the most prominent of these orders, particularly in Kashgaria, where the western Chagatai Khan was too a disciple of the order.[72]

Muslims of Primal Asian origin played a major role in the Mongol conquest of China. Sayyid Ajjal Shams al-Din Omar, a court official and general of Turkic origin who participated in the Mongol invasion of Southwest Communist china, became Yuan Governor of Yunnan in 1274. A singled-out Muslim community, the Panthays, was established in the region by the tardily 13th century.

Europe [edit]

Tariq ibn Ziyad was a Muslim general who led the Islamic conquest of Visigothic Hispania in 711-718 A.D. He is considered to exist one of the near important military commanders in Iberian history. The proper name "Gibraltar" is the Spanish derivation of the Arabic name Jabal Tāriq ( جبل طارق ) (meaning "mount of Tariq"), named after him.

There are accounts of the trade connections betwixt the Muslims and the Rus, apparently Vikings who fabricated their mode towards the Black Sea through Central Russia. On his manner to Volga Bulgaria, Ibn Fadlan brought detailed reports of the Rus, claiming that some had converted to Islam.

According to the historian Yaqut al-Hamawi, the Böszörmény (Izmaelita or Ismaili / Nizari) denomination of the Muslims who lived in the Kingdom of Republic of hungary in the 10th to 13th centuries, were employed equally mercenaries by the kings of Hungary.

Hispania / Al-Andalus [edit]

The history of Arab and Islamic rule in the Iberian peninsula is probably one of the most studied periods of European history. For centuries afterward the Arab conquest, European accounts of Arab rule in Iberia were negative. European points of view started irresolute with the Protestant Reformation, which resulted in new descriptions of the period of Islamic rule in Spain every bit a "golden age" (mostly every bit a reaction confronting Spain'due south militant Roman Catholicism after 1500)[ citation needed ].

The tide of Arab expansion later on 630 rolled through North Africa up to Ceuta in present-day Morocco. Their arrival coincided with a period of political weakness in the three-centuries-one-time kingdom established in the Iberian peninsula past the Germanic Visigoths, who had taken over the region later 7 centuries of Roman rule. Seizing the opportunity, an Arab-led (only generally Berber) army invaded in 711, and by 720 had conquered the southern and central regions of the peninsula. The Arab expansion pushed over the mountains into southern French republic, and for a short period Arabs controlled the former Visigothic province of Septimania (centered on nowadays-day Narbonne). The Arab Caliphate was pushed dorsum past Charles Martel (Frankish Mayor of the Palace) at Poitiers, and Christian armies started pushing southwards over the mountains, until Charlemagne established in 801 the Spanish March (which stretched from Barcelona to present day Navarre).

A major development in the history of Muslim Spain was the dynastic change in 750 in the Arab Caliphate, when an Umayyad Prince escaped the slaughter of his family in Damascus, fled to Cordoba in Espana, and created a new Islamic state in the surface area. This was the kickoff of a distinctly Spanish Muslim society, where large Christian and Jewish populations coexisted with an increasing percentage of Muslims. In that location are many stories of descendants of Visigothic chieftains and Roman counts whose families converted to Islam during this menstruum. The at-offset small Muslim elite continued to grow with converts, and with a few exceptions, rulers in Islamic Spain immune Christians and Jews the correct specified in the Koran to practice their own religions, though non-Muslims suffered from political and taxation inequities. The net result was, in those areas of Spain where Muslim rule lasted the longest, the creation of a society that was by and large Arabic-speaking considering of the assimilation of native inhabitants, a process in some ways similar to the assimilation many years after of millions of immigrants to the United States into English-speaking culture. As the descendants of Visigoths and Hispano-Romans concentrated in the north of the peninsula, in the kingdoms of Asturias/Leon, Navarre and Aragon and started a long entrada known every bit the 'Reconquista' which started with the victory of the Christian armies in Covadonga in 722. Military campaigns continued without pause. In 1085 Alfonso VI of Castille took back Toledo. In 1212 the crucial Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa meant the recovery of the bulk of the peninsula for the Christian kingdoms. In 1238 James I of Aragon took Valencia. In 1236 the ancient Roman city of Cordoba was re-conquered by Ferdinand Three of Castille and in 1248 the city of Seville. The famous medieval epic poem 'Cantar de Mio Cid' narrates the life and deeds of this hero during the Reconquista.

The Islamic country centered in Cordoba had ended up splintering into many smaller kingdoms (the so-called taifas). While Muslim Spain was fragmenting, the Christian kingdoms grew larger and stronger, and the balance of power shifted against the 'Taifa' kingdoms. The last Muslim kingdom of Granada in the southward was finally taken in 1492 by Queen Isabelle of Castille and Ferdinand of Aragon. In 1499, the remaining Muslim inhabitants were ordered to catechumen or leave (at the aforementioned time the Jews were expelled). Poorer Muslims (Moriscos) who could not beget to leave concluded up converting to Catholic Christianity and hiding their Muslim practices, hiding from the Spanish Inquisition, until their presence was finally extinguished.

Balkans [edit]

In Balkan history, historical writing on the topic of conversion to Islam was, and still is, a highly charged political issue. Information technology is intrinsically linked to the bug of formation of national identities and rival territorial claims of the Balkan states. The generally accustomed nationalist discourse of the current Balkan historiography defines all forms of Islamization as results of the Ottoman government'due south centrally organized policy of conversion or dawah. The truth is that Islamization in each Balkan country took place in the grade of many centuries, and its nature and phase was determined non by the Ottoman regime simply by the specific conditions of each locality. Ottoman conquests were initially military and economic enterprises, and religious conversions were non their principal objective. Truthful, the statements surrounding victories all celebrated the incorporation of territory into Muslim domains, just the actual Ottoman focus was on taxation and making the realms productive, and a religious campaign would have disrupted that economic objective.

Ottoman Islamic standards of toleration immune for autonomous "nations" (millets) in the Empire, under their own personal law and under the rule of their own religious leaders. As a upshot, vast areas of the Balkans remained by and large Christian during the period of Ottoman domination. In fact, the Eastern Orthodox Churches had a higher position in the Ottoman Empire, mainly because the Patriarch resided in Istanbul and was an officeholder of the Ottoman Empire. In contrast, Roman Catholics, while tolerated, were suspected of loyalty to a foreign power (the Papacy). It is no surprise that the Roman Catholic areas of Bosnia, Kosovo and northern Republic of albania, ended up with more than substantial conversions to Islam. The defeat of the Ottomans in 1699 past the Austrians resulted in their loss of Hungary and present-day Croatia. The remaining Muslim converts in both elected to get out "lands of unbelief" and moved to territory still under the Ottomans. Around this point in time, new European ideas of romantic nationalism started to seep into the Empire, and provided the intellectual foundation for new nationalistic ideologies and the reinforcement of the self-epitome of many Christian groups as subjugated peoples.

As a rule, the Ottomans did non require followers of Greek Orthodoxy to become Muslims, although many did so in lodge to avert the socioeconomic hardships of Ottoman rule.[73] One by one, the Balkan nationalities asserted their independence from the Empire, and oft the presence of members of the same ethnicity who had converted to Islam presented a problem from the point of view of the at present ascendant new national ideology, which narrowly defined the nation every bit members of the local dominant Orthodox Christian denomination.[74] Some Muslims in the Balkans chose to leave, while many others were forcefully expelled to what was left of the Ottoman Empire.[74] This demographic transition can be illustrated by the subtract in the number of mosques in Belgrade, from over lxx in 1750 (before Serbian independence in 1815), to only three in 1850.

Immigration [edit]

Since the 1960s, many Muslims have migrated to Western Europe. They have come every bit immigrants, guest workers, asylum seekers or every bit part of family reunification. As a upshot, the Muslim population in Europe has steadily risen.

A Pew Forum study, published in January 2011, forecast an increase of the proportion of Muslims in the European population from vi% in 2010 to eight% in 2030.[75]

Come across also [edit]

  • Al-Hallaj
  • Sinbuya Asvari
  • Muslim population growth
  • Islamization
  • History of Islam
  • Converts to Islam
  • Conversion to Islam in U.S. prisons
  • Religious conversion
  • Islamism
  • List of converts to Islam
  • Muslim conquests
  • Islamic missionary activity
  • Muslim world
  • Islam by country

References [edit]

Citations [edit]

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